Thermodynamics Overview and Basic Concepts

Thermodynamics is the field of physics that deals with the relationship between heat and other properties (such as pressure, density, temperature, etc.) in a substance. Specifically, thermodynamics focuses largely on how a heat transfer is related to various energy changes within a physical system undergoing a thermodynamic process. Such processes usually result in work  being done by the system and are guided by the laws of thermodynamics. Basic Concepts of Heat Transfer Broadly speaking, the heat of a material is understood as a representation of the energy contained within the particles of that material. This is known as the kinetic theory of gases, though the concept applies in varying degrees to solids and liquids as well. The heat from the motion of these particles can transfer into nearby particles, and therefore into other parts of the material or other materials, through a variety of means: Thermal Contact is when two substances can affect each others temperature.Thermal Equilibrium is when two substances in thermal contact no longer transfer heat.Thermal Expansion takes place when a substance expands in volume as it gains heat. Thermal contraction also exists.Conduction is when heat flows through a heated solid.Convection is when heated particles transfer heat to another substance, such as cooking something in boiling water.Radiation is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic waves, such as from the sun.Insulation is when a low-conducting material is used to prevent heat transfer. Thermodynamic Processes A system undergoes a thermodynamic process when there is some sort of energetic change within the system, generally associated with changes in pressure, volume, internal energy (i.e. temperature), or any sort of heat transfer. There are several specific types of thermodynamic processes that have special properties: Adiabatic process - a process with no heat transfer into or out of the system.Isochoric process - a process with no change in volume, in which case the system does no work.Isobaric process - a process with no change in pressure.Isothermal process - a process with no change in temperature. States of Matter A state of matter is a description of the type of physical structure that a material substance manifests, with properties that describe how the material holds together (or doesnt). There are five states of matter, though only the first three of them are usually included in the way we think about states of matter: gasliquidsolidplasmasuperfluid (such as a Bose-Einstein Condensate) Many substances can transition between the gas, liquid, and solid phases of matter, while only a few rare substances are known to be able to enter a superfluid state. Plasma is a distinct state of matter, such as lightning   condensation - gas to liquidfreezing - liquid to solidmelting - solid to liquidsublimation - solid to gasvaporization - liquid or solid to gas Heat Capacity The heat capacity, C, of an object is the ratio of change in heat (energy change, ΔQ, where the Greek symbol Delta, Δ, denotes a change in the quantity) to change in temperature (ΔT). C Δ Q / Δ T The heat capacity of a substance indicates the ease with which a substance heats up. A good thermal conductor would have a low heat capacity, indicating that a small amount of energy causes a large temperature change. A good thermal insulator would have a large heat capacity, indicating that much energy transfer is needed for a temperature change. Ideal Gas Equations There are various ideal gas equations which relate temperature (T1), pressure (P1), and volume (V1). These values after a thermodynamic change are indicated by (T2), (P2), and (V2). For a given amount of a substance, n (measured in moles), the following relationships hold: Boyles Law ( T is constant):P 1 V 1 P 2 V 2Charles/Gay-Lussac Law (P is constant):V1/T1 V2/T2Ideal Gas Law:P1V1/T1 P2V2/T2 nR R is the ideal gas constant, R 8.3145 J/mol*K. For a given amount of matter, therefore, nR is constant, which gives the Ideal Gas Law. Laws of Thermodynamics Zeroeth Law of Thermodynamics - Two systems each in thermal equilibrium with a third system are in thermal equilibrium to each other.First Law of Thermodynamics - The change in the energy of a system is the amount of energy added to the system minus the energy spent doing work.Second Law of Thermodynamics - It is impossible for a process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler body to a hotter one.Third Law of Thermodynamics - It is impossible to reduce any system to absolute zero in a finite series of operations. This means that a perfectly efficient heat engine cannot be created. The Second Law Entropy The Second Law of Thermodynamics can be restated to talk about entropy, which is a quantitative measurement of the disorder in a system. The change in heat divided by the absolute temperature is the entropy change of the process. Defined this way, the Second Law can be restated as: In any closed system, the entropy of the system will either remain constant or increase. By closed system it means that every part of the process is included when calculating the entropy of the system. More About Thermodynamics In some ways, treating thermodynamics as a distinct discipline of physics is misleading. Thermodynamics touches on virtually every field of physics, from astrophysics to biophysics, because they all deal in some fashion with the change of energy in a system. Without the ability of a system to use energy within the system to do work — the heart of thermodynamics — there would be nothing for physicists to study. That having been said, there are some fields use thermodynamics in passing as they go about studying other phenomena, while there are a wide range of fields which focus heavily on the thermodynamics situations involved. Here are some of the sub-fields of thermodynamics: Cryophysics / Cryogenics / Low Temperature Physics - the study of physical properties in low temperature situations, far below temperatures experienced on even the coldest regions of the Earth. An example of this is the study of superfluids.Fluid Dynamics / Fluid Mechanics - the study of the physical properties of fluids, specifically defined in this case to be liquids and gases.High Pressure Physics - the study of physics in extremely high pressure systems, generally related to fluid dynamics.Meteorology / Weather Physics - the physics of the weather, pressure systems in the atmosphere, etc.Plasma Physics - the study of matter in the plasma state.

The Paradigm Of Conflict Theory - 1784 Words

Karl Marx, a famous German philosopher and sociologist, was a communist (Econfaculty). Which might turn some heads; however, his perspectives on certain issues are highly touted in the sociological world. He revolutionized the way in which people believe society is ran. So much so, that his most profound theory is one of the three major sociological paradigm that is studied in arguably every sociology class within the first week or two. Conflict Theory, created by Marx in the 1800s, is in the realm of macro level theories which relate more to larger scale issues as well as larger groups of people. Whereas the micro level of theories relate to very specific relationships – usually between individuals (OpenStax CNX. 2012). The paradigm of†¦show more content†¦The reason for this is simply that other people in the society cannot stand to see others benefit from a decision that gives them no beneficial outcome – even if it does not affect them in the slightest mann er negatively. However, in a society that is rallied behind each other, the group not being affected by the decision would be happy for the group that was affected because they understand that it benefits the society as a whole. As mentioned earlier, Karl Marx was a communist, and the same can be said for his system of government (Econfaculty). However, his principles and ideals emphasize equality. His ideologies on human rights, gender roles, healthcare, and lastly access to education are embedded with the notion that all parties deserve an equal stance and opportunity. Essentially, Marx is saying that every person should be able to get access to the most important of necessities with no priority for any party (Flow Psychology). A society must establish a common goal to work for which leads to the society to work together and continue to fortify that collective unit. By creating common goals, a society is establishing core values. With core values, a society is far more aware of wh at it needs to do to evolve into a proverbial well-oiled machine (Coser 1956). Arguably the most important reason as to why it is important for a unified society to establish core values is when conflict arises. In this perfectly imperfect world,Show MoreRelatedExamples Of Family Problems1401 Words   |  6 Pagesrelate to the three sociological paradigms; functionalist theory, conflict theory, and social interaction theory. Functionalist theory attributes family problems to social changes that prevent the family from performing its traditional functions. Conflict theory blames family problems on the strong feelings that being in a family arouses, such as love, pain, and conflict, and that the family provides an outlet for men to exploit women. Symbolic interaction theory focuses on the thoughtless nastinessRead MoreRealism Is The Most Convincing Paradigm For International Relations? Essay1579 Words   |  7 PagesWOULD YOU AGREE THAT REALISM IS THE MOST CONVINCING PARADIGM FOR IN TERNATIONAL RELATIONS? WHAT ARE THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF REALISM AS A THEORY FOR INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? Realism has dominated international relations theory since emerging in the 1930’s. The era of state conflict lasting from the 1930’s to the end of the cold war in 1947, proved the perfect hostile environment to fit the largely pessimistic view of world politics. While many aspects of realism are still alive in InternationalRead MoreThe Scientific Science Of Science1304 Words   |  6 Pagescreativity. However, the scientific method is not a rigid system of pursuing measurable facts. It contains fallacies and biases. In testing hypotheses, performing observations, or reasoning inductively, science is undoubtedly flawed and erroneous. Paradigms, commonly seen as infallible and containing rather insignificant errors, contribute to many of the errors involved in scientific discoveries today. The liability of humans, including their imagination and creativity, could amount to errors in theRead MoreThe Theory, Symbolic Interactionism, And Conflict Theory1040 Words   |  5 Pagesinteracts with others, and how others influence the individual behaviors that impact society in a micro or macro way. The second theoretical framework is the conflict theory, it examines the rift between the rich and the poor and how it affects the quality of education, health care, and living condition of said group. Thirdly, the functionalist theory, which compares society to a system of interrelated parts, it’s a social system not just an individual. Each frame work plays part in the issue when an economyRead MoreTheories Of Secularization1029 Words   |  5 PagesThe Secularization Debates Early theories of secularization had originated in order to make note of the transfer of religious properties to the state. In this way, secularization was initially conceived as a means of labelling the transfer of things from the religious sphere of the European monastery to the non-monastic saeculum, or, secular sphere. This theory was subsumed into theories of modernization in order to argue that as the social differentiation of societies on the path to modernizationRead MoreTheoretical Frameworks Of Sociology And Sociological Perspective Essay918 Words   |  4 Pagesand how they study it. In this essay, I will be discussing theoretical frameworks of sociology; what is sociological perspective, how sociology differs from other disciplines such as history, anthropology or psychology, and how are sociological paradigms are used as ‘tools of the sociologist’ in their analyses of human societies. Firstly, what is sociological perspective? The sociological perspective is the point of view on human behaviour and how society influences people, and vice versa. TypicallyRead MoreThe Theory Of The Functionalist Paradigm869 Words   |  4 PagesThe Functionalist Paradigm is all about that which does and does not maintain a sense of social stability. It is the contention that social structure is the reason that everything is stable or perhaps not so stable, and that said structure is an attempt at maintaining a sort of societal symmetry. This paradigm argues that the best sort of society is a stable one, meaning any possible element that could be used toward that goal should be taken advantage of for the adaptability of the civilizationRead MoreSocial Conflict Theory Essay1294 Words   |  6 PagesThe social conflict paradigm is a theory based on society being a complex system characterized by inequality and conflict that generate social change. Personal life experiences dictat e me to believe this theory is true. Discussion of the theory in question and how it pertains to myself will be covered in the paper. Social conflict can be seen all over the world we live in: in sports, politics and normal social engagements. The main point I have experienced with this theory would be the fact thatRead More Social Conflict and Inequality Essay1272 Words   |  6 PagesSocial Conflict and Inequality The social conflict paradigm is a theory based on society being a complex system characterized by inequality and conflict that generate social change. Personal life experiences dictate me to believe this theory is true. Discussion of the theory in question and how it pertains to myself will be covered in the paper. Social conflict can be seen all over the world we live in: in sports, politics and normal social engagements. The main point I have experienced with thisRead MoreEssay Sociology676 Words   |  3 Pagesï » ¿ Identify the four major sociological theoretical paradigms. For each, what are the key tenets? How does each explain how society works? Functionalist Perspectives† also known as Structural-Functional Paradigm†- â€Å"The sociological approach that views society as a stable, orderly system. According to this perspective, a society is composed of interrelated parts, each of which serves a function and (ideally) contributes to the overall stability of the society. Societies develop social structures

Applied Ethics and Sustainability for Artificial Intelligence

Question: Discuss about theApplied Ethics and Sustainability for Artificial Intelligence. Answer: This ethical question is relevant to the question as artificial intelligence can beat human intelligence in terms of perfection or time management. Therefore, companies require robots rather than human. This is to be noted that the manual labour is being replaced by the automation or mechanism. It can be said that the humans want humans to concentrate on complex works instead of losing energy in doing physical work (Block 2016). This is to be mentioned that the physical labour was the dominant work in the context of pre-industrial world. It can be said intellectual labour plays dominant role in the industrial world (Van Vlasselaer et al. 2015). Therefore humans felt the urgency to reduce their effort with the help of machines. This is also to be noted that the workers had to danger their lives for the sake of earning bread and butter. Therefore, it was ethical to create significant alternative ways in order to secure workers life. There is no risk for a machine to work in a crisis situation. However, the rise of automated work create an employment issue throughout the world. The companies increase the number of machines instead of requiting employees. This is because the companies n eed to do one time investment to install machines. However, they have to spend money on employees monthly. It is important to understand to understand that a machine can work of five to six people in a short period of time. This can be stated that the company gets the faster work in the return of less money. Therefore, this becomes a significant issue to highlight because human are not being recruited and are not able to run their family. Six key facts: According to the report published by the company named Forrester, robots will have reduced at least 6 % of the entire jobs in the United States by the year 2021. The automated works will include driving vehicles, providing customer services and calculating. This is significant to mention that the robots are being facilitated with intellect. They can interpret human emotions. This is why they can even make decisions on behalf the humans. Therefore, it can be considered as threat. It is because they can compete with not only physical strength of human but also with their intellect. This is evident that the companies prefer robots rather than human employees. It is because the robots play an important role for the benefits of the significant companies. The companies find the robots useful in terms of cost cutting. These robots can offer significant quantitative productions. It is important to be noted that the machines can produce quality to a certain level. However, it cannot match the intellect level of human beings in true sense. This is to be remembered that the Robots are the creation of human brains. Therefore, the robots cannot work as the replica of humans for sure. According to Brian Hopkins, a troublesome situation will take place with the rise of robots by the year 2012. AI/ cognitive technology will replace the jobs of the drivers, consumer services, logistics and others. Therefore, a negative impact will be seen in these sort of fields for sure. This is to be suggested that six percent of the employees is significantly high. According to Andy Stern, this is actually not making place for full time jobs on the regular basis. Therefore, it can be said that the people will not find jobs easily on the basis of their merit and hard work. This is to be noted that the robots are facilitated to understand human behaviour and imitate them. Therefore, there is a chance of developing a love relationship between a robot and a human being. However, it may create turmoil as the robots are not be able to feel human emotions but to imitate their behaviour. It is evident that there will be an employment issue will take place with the rise of robot. Therefore, human may feel agitated for not finding jobs. The humans will suffer with their family. Therefore, there is a chance of humans revolting against the robots. They may try to destroy the robots in order to survive. There are both the positive and negative impacts of the automated jobs. Positive Impacts: The automated machines or robots are absolutely useful for a company. The machines help the companies to cut the cost. This is to be mentioned that the robots or the machine can work significantly fast rather than employees. It can also be stated that manual work cannot match to the level of automated work in terms of time. It is to be mentioned that human would danger their life in order to work in the risky zones. The rise of machines and robots do not allow the people to danger their life. They take the responsibilities of human and sort the difficult works in the risky zones also (Wadud, MacKenzie and Leiby 2016). This is to be noted that the machines and robots are useful to reduce the work pressure of humans. The machines allow the humans to focus on the complicated and intellectual work and ensure the relaxation for the human beings (Parker, Van Alstyne and Choudary 2016). It is evident that the growth of automated work disregard the value of genuine effort of human beings. This is to be noticed that the less number of humans are being recruited in the world of most industrialization. Therefore, it can easily be said that this leads the humans to joblessness and poverty (Hall et al. 2014). This is to be noted that the value of manual work is being disregarded. It is evident that the quest of knowledge and learning are being diminished. Humans are not willing to get involved into the creative works (Hoff and Bashir 2015). This is because they know that their works will not be appreciated. It can be said that humans are significantly involved in the world of technology. This is because they know if they can learn how to utilize the technologies then there is a chance of earning bread for them (Bakker et al. 2014). Therefore, they are lacking human emotions. This can be stated from the above discussion that the world is stepping towards turmoil. It can be said that the machines or robots are facilitated with the potential of understanding the human emotions. However, with the rise of technologies are humans are lacking of emotions. The companies will surely be benefitted with the automated work. However, it be dangerous if the machines fail to work properly. This is because the human errors can be rectified as they are manual. The errors committed by the machines or robot can be solved easily as these are system oriented. The systems are depended on the specific codes. Therefore, it can endanger the place if mishaps take place. Reference: Bakker, L.G., Hoes-van Oeffelen, E.C.M., Loonen, R.C.G.M. and Hensen, J.L.M., 2014. User satisfaction and interaction with automated dynamic facades: A pilot study.Building and Environment,78, pp.44-52. Block, P., 2016.The empowered manager: Positive political skills at work. John Wiley Sons. Hall, C.S., Fottrell, E., Wilkinson, S. and Byass, P., 2014. Assessing the impact of mHealth interventions in low-and middle-income countrieswhat has been shown to work?.Global health action,7(1), p.25606. Hoff, K.A. and Bashir, M., 2015. Trust in automation: Integrating empirical evidence on factors that influence trust.Human Factors,57(3), pp.407-434. Nuij, W., Milea, V., Hogenboom, F., Frasincar, F. and Kaymak, U., 2014. An automated framework for incorporating news into stock trading strategies.IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering,26(4), pp.823-835. Parker, G.G., Van Alstyne, M.W. and Choudary, S.P., 2016.Platform Revolution: How Networked Markets Are Transforming the Economyand How to Make Them Work for You. WW Norton Company. Van Vlasselaer, V., Bravo, C., Caelen, O., Eliassi-Rad, T., Akoglu, L., Snoeck, M. and Baesens, B., 2015. APATE: A novel approach for automated credit card transaction fraud detection using network-based extensions.Decision Support Systems,75, pp.38-48. Wadud, Z., MacKenzie, D. and Leiby, P., 2016. Help or hindrance? The travel, energy and carbon impacts of highly automated vehicles.Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice,86, pp.1-18.

Salem Witch Trials. Essay Example For Students

Salem Witch Trials. Essay The Salem witch trials were held during the year 1692 in Salem, Massachusetts Bay Colony. Beginning in May of that year, the proceedings led to the hanging deaths of nineteen suspected witches and the imprisonment of many others over the five months that would follow. The courtroom episodes of those being tried for witchery were complete, and utter travesties of justice. Women were actually considered guilty as accused until proven innocent. In addition to the known hangings, other cruel forms of punishment such as the burning of witches on a stake and the slow torturous human crushings by brick. That which is said to have initiated the trials and related hysteria has become an historical irony in our time and is the subject of many contemporary jokes and theatrical performances. Caused by the accusations of a few young girls against women in the Salem community; a special court was convened; and trials grew quickly into socially stereotypical prejudices regarding any women seen acting out of or performing witchery. Within time the social chaos did not even exclude Salems more prestigious women as the local governors wife was even implicated in accusations of witchcraft. The dramatic irony is re-exemplified through an examination of the young ladies who intentionally lied to a religious authority and created the ;spark; to cause the fire. Based entirely on their beliefs and accusations, the fear and ignorance of an entire town led to hundreds of imprisonments and nearly twenty senseless deaths. When community leaders did finally begin to cast doubt on evidence; special court was dissolved and those imprisoned were pardoned. When community leaders did finally begin to cast doubt on evidence; special court was dissolved and those imprisoned were pardoned. Eventually indemnities were paid to the families of those killed yet of the three judges who presided over the trials, only Samuel Sewall admitted error in a public statement The Salem witch trials were clearly Americas most notorious episode of witchcraft By September 22, the court had tried and convicted twenty-seven persons. Nineteen were hanged and one said to have been pressed to death by stones. In addition, about one hundred and fifty were in jail. With the jails overflowing, the hysteria abated. With this support the governor abruptly intervened and freed all who were in jail. In 1711, heirs of the alleged witches were voted compensation for their losses. As one can see the power of superstition and the hearsay can distort the truth. The Salem witch trials were horrifying and it changes many peoples lives.Words / Pages : 408 / 24 .